Yao people

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The Yao people (its majority branch is also known as Mien; simplified Chinese: ??; traditional Chinese: ??; pinyin: Yáo zú; Vietnamese: ng??i Dao) is a government classification for various minorities in China and Vietnam. They are one of the 55 officially recognised ethnic minorities in China and reside in the mountainous terrain of the southwest and south. They also form one of the 54 ethnic groups officially recognised by Vietnam. In the last census in 2000, they numbered 2,637,421 in China and roughly 470,000 in Vietnam.

Video Yao people

History

Early history

The origins of the Yao can be traced back 2000 years starting in Hunan. The Yao and Hmong were among the rebels during the Miao Rebellions against the Ming dynasty. As the Han Chinese expanded into South China, the Yao retreated into the highlands between Hunan and Guizhou to the north and Guangdong and Guangxi to the south, and stretching into eastern Yunnan. Around 1890, the Guangdong government started taking action against Yao in northwestern Guangdong.

The first Chinese exonym for "Yao people" was the graphic pejorative yao ? (?"dog radical" and yao ? phonetic) "jackal", which twentieth-century language reforms changed to yao ? (? "jade radical") "precious jade; green jasper".

Laotian Civil War

During the Laotian Civil War, Yao tribes of Laos had a good relationship with U.S. forces and were dubbed to be an "efficient friendly force". They fought in favour of government against the communists. This relationship caused the new communist Laotian government to target Yao tribal groups for revenge once the war was over. This triggered further immigration into Thailand, where the tribes would be put into camps along the Thailand-Laos border.

Immigration to the United States

After obtaining refugee status from the Thai government and with the help of the United Nations, many Yao people were able to obtain sponsorship into the United States (although many remain in Thailand). Most of the Yao who have immigrated to the United States have settled along the Western part of the U.S., mainly in Central and Northern California such as Visalia, Fresno, Oakland, Oroville, Redding, Richmond, Sacramento, but also in parts of Oregon like Portland, Salem, and Beaverton as well as the state of Washington in Seattle and Renton. See Mien American for those identified as Mien.

Maps Yao people

Culture, society, and economy

Yao society is traditionally patrilineal, with sons inheriting from their fathers. Marriage between first cousins is common. The Yao follow patrilocal residence.

The Yao people have been farmers for over a thousand years, mostly rice cultivation through plowing, although a few practice slash-and-burn agriculture. Where the Yao live nearby forested regions, they also engage in hunting.

During the Southern Song (1127-127), an imperial Chinese observer, Zhou Qufei, described the Yao as wearing distinctive fine blue clothing produced using indigo.

The Yao celebrate their Pan Wang (King Pan) festival annually on the sixteenth day of the tenth lunar month. The festival celebrates the mythical original story of the Yao people, and has evolved "into a happy holiday for the Yao to celebrate a good harvest and worship their ancestors."

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Religion

Daoism has historically been important to the Yao. Jinag Yingliang, in a 1948 study, argued that Yao religion was characterized by (1) a process of Han Chinese-influenced Daoisation (Chinese: ???; pinyin: Dàojiào huà); (2) the endurance of pre-Daoist folk religion; and (3) some Buddhist beliefs.

The description of Yao region is similar to the definition of Chinese folk religion as described by Arthur Wolf and Steve Sangren. Scholar Zhang Youjun takes issue with claims of "strong Buddhist influence" on the Yao, arguing that "although Yao ritual texts contain Buddhist expression, the Yao do not believe in Buddhism at all. They are resolutely Taoist."

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Groups and languages

There are several distinct groups within the Yao nationality, and they speak several different languages, The Iu Mien comprise 70% of the Yao population.

• Hmong-Mien languages
  • The Mien speak Mienic languages (simplified Chinese: ??; traditional Chinese: ??; pinyin: Mi?ny?), including:
    • Mian-Jin languages
      • Iu Mien, 2,172,000 speakers (1,699,750 in China, 350,000 in Vietnam, 40,000 in Thailand, 20,250 in Laos, 60,000 in the United States, 2,000 in France) [1]
      • Kim Mun (also known as Lanten), more than 300,000 Yao people [2]
      • Biao Mon, 20,000 speakers [3]
    • Dzao Min, 60,000 speakers [4]
    • Biao Min, 43,000 speakers [5]
  • Hmongic languages
    • Bunu languages
    • Pa-Hng
    • Younuo
    • Kiong Nai
• Lakkja language (a Tai-Kadai language)
• Chinese
  • about 500,000 Yao speak Chinese dialects

In addition to China, Yao also live in northern Vietnam (where they are called Dao), northern Laos, and Myanmar. There are around 60,000 Yao in northern Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. The lowland-living Lanten of Laos, who speak Kim Mun, and the highland-living Iu Mien of Laos are two different Yao groups. There are also many Iu Mien Americans, mainly refugees from the highlands of Laos. The Iu Mien do not call themselves "Yao". Not all "Yao" are Iu Mien. A group of 61,000 people on Hainan speak the Yao language Kim Mun; 139,000 speakers of Kim Mun live in other parts of China (Yunnan and Guangxi), and 174,500 live in Laos and Vietnam.

The Bunu people call themselves Nuox [no??], Buod nuox [po??no??], Dungb nuox [tu??no??], or their official name Yaof zuf [?au??su??]. Only 258,000 of the 439,000 people categorised as Bunu in the 1982 census speak Bunu; 100,000 speak the Tai-Kadai Zhuang languages, and 181,000 speak Chinese and the Tai-Kadai Bouyei language.

Mao (2004)

Mao Zongwu (2004:7-8) gives a detailed list of various Yao endonyms (i.e., self-designated names) and the Chinese names of various groups and clans associated with them. Endonyms are written in the International Phonetic Alphabet with numerical Chao tones.

• Autonym mjen31 ? or ju31 mjen31 ??: Pangu Yao ???, Pan Yao ??, Panhu Yao ???, Trans-Mountain / Guoshan Yao ???, Large-Board / Daban Yao ???, Small-Board / Xiaoban Yao ???, Board / Ban Yao ??, Top-Board / Dingban Yao ???, Sharp-Headed / Jiantou Yao ???, Level-Headed / Pingtou Yao ???, Red-Head / Hongtou Yao ???, Arrow-Pole / Jian'gan Yao ???, Cattle-Horn Yao / Niujiao ???, Tu Yao ?? (in Hezhou, Guangxi), Native / Bendi Yao ???, Flowery / Hua Yao ?? (in Yangshuo County, Guangxi), Ao Yao ??, Zheng Yao ??, Liang Yao ??
• Autonym kim33 mun33 ?? or kem53 di35 mun21 ???: Blue-Indigo / Landian Yao ???, Shanzi Yao ???, Flowery-Headed / Huatou Yao ???, Sand / Sha Yao ??, Level-Headed / Pingtou Yao ???, Bazi Yao ???
• Autonym bjau31 m?n31 ?? or ?i31 mun31 ??: Min Yao ??, "Four Great" Min Yao ????
• Autonym bjau31 min31 ?? or t?au44 ko?55 me?55 ???: East Mountain / Dongshan Yao ??? (in Quanzhou County, Guangxi), Dog-Headed / Goutou Yao ???
• Autonym dzau53 min53 ??: Bapai Yao ???
• Autonym ju21 ?j?n24 ??, pjo?31 toa53 jeu31 ???, or ?an33 t?ai33 ??: Red Yao ?? (in Longsheng Various Nationalities Autonomous County, Guangxi), Plains / Pingdi Yao ???
• Autonym pu53 nu24 ??: Beilou Yao ???, Beilong Yao ???, West Mountain / Xishan Yao ???, East Mountain Yao / Dongshan ??? (in Bama Yao Autonomous County, Guangxi), Tudi Yao ???, Tu Yao ?? (in Pingguo County and Mashan County, Guangxi), Mountain / Shan Yao ??, Man Yao ??, East Valley / Dongnong Yao ???, West Valley / Xinong Yao ???, Fan Yao ??, Anding Yao ???, White Yao ??, Black Yao ??, Black-Trouser / Heiku Yao ???, Long-Shirt / Changshan Yao ???
• Autonym nau35 klau42 ??? or pou22 nou12 ??: Siting Yao ???, Situan Yao ???
• Autonym kj??33 nai33 ??: Hualan Yao ???
• Autonym pa31 ???35 ??: Dog Yao ??, Eight-Surname / Baxing Yao ???, Red Yao ?? (in Liping and Congjiang Counties of Guizhou; Rongshui Miao Autonomous County and Longsheng Various Nationalities Autonomous County of Guangxi), Wood Yao ??
• Autonym m?n33 nai33 ??: Flowery Yao ?? (in Longhui, Dongkou, Chenxi, and Xupu County and the Tongdao Dong Autonomous County of Hunan)
• Autonym ?ou13 n?13 ??: Red Yao ??
• Autonym lak24 kja24 ??: Tea Mountain / Chashan Yao ???

Plains Yao

Groups considered to be "Plains Yao" (Pingdi Yao ???) include:

• Autonym Bingduoyou ??? (Pingdi Yao ???, Dainaijiang ???): in Jianghua Yao Autonomous County ?? of Hunan; Gongcheng ??, Fuchuan ??, Zhongshan ??, and Lingui ?? counties of Guangxi
• Autonym Yeheni ??? (Pingdi Yao ???): in Jianghua Yao Autonomous County ??, Hunan (Jianghua County Almanac). The Yeheni speak a divergent Chinese dialect. It is spoken in Taoxu Town ??? and Helukou Town ???? in Jianghua County, Hunan.
• Autonym Younian ?? (Pinghua-speaking Red Yao ????; ?ou13 ?en13): in Longsheng ?? and Guanyang ?? counties of Guangxi. According to Chen Qiguang (2013:30), the ??u21 ?ien21 number about 10,000 speakers in Sishui ??, Madi ??, Mengshan ??, Jiangliu ??, and other locations of Longsheng County.
• Autonym Shanjie ?? (Shanzi Yao ???): in Fangcheng ??, Guangxi
• Autonym Youjia ?? (Yaojia ??): in Guanyang County ??, Guangxi
• Jingdong Yao ????? (autonym: Lewu people ???): Jingdong County ???????, Yunnan. According to the Jingdong County Almanac (1994:519), ethnic Yao numbered 3,889 individuals in 1990, and lived mainly in Chaqing ?? and Dasongshu ??? of Taizhong ???.

Vietnam

Tim Doling (2010:82-83) lists the following Yao (spelled Dao in the Vietnamese alphabet) subgroups in northern Vietnam.

• Mienic groups
  • Im Mien: Black Dao of Dien Bien and Lai Chau; Red Dao of southern Lao Cai, Yen Bai, and Son La
  • Kim Mien: Dao Tà Pán ??? (Dao ??i B?n, Dao Coóc Ngáng, Dao S?ng) of Ha Giang, Cao Bang, and Yen Bai; Red Dao of northern and eastern Lao Cai; Hongtou Red Dao ??? in northern Lai Chau
  • Kiem Mien: Red Dao of Sa Pa
  • Kam Mien: Coin Dao of Ha Giang, Cao Bang, Tuyen Quang, Thai Nguyen, and Bac Can
  • Kem Mien: Coin Dao of Hoa Binh and Son La
  • Qu?n Ch?t Mien: Hoa Binh, Son La, Tuyen Quang, Bac Can (also called the Dao Nga Hoàng, Dao S?n ??u)
  • Lô Gang Mien: Dao Lô Gang and Dao ??u Tr?c of Ha Giang, Cao Bang, Lang Son, and Mong Cai
• Kim Mun groups
  • Kim Mun: Dao Làn Ti?n ??? (including the Dao Tuy?n, Dao Áo Dài, and Dao ??u B?ng)
  • Kim Meun: Dao Qu?n Tr?ng ??? and Dao Thanh Y ???

According to Doling (2010), only Kim Mun, Kim Mien, and Lô Gang may be found outside Vietnam.

Nguyen (2004:14-15, 128) lists ??i B?n, Ti?u B?n, Kh? B?ch, and Làn Ti?n as the 4 primary subdivisions of ethnic Yao in Vietnam.

• ??i B?n
  • Dao ?? (Hùng Th?u Dào, Dao Coóc Ngáng, Dao Quý Lâm): located in Yen Bai, Lao Cai, Lai Chau, Tuyen Quang, Ha Giang, Cao Bang, Bac Kan, Thai Nguyen
  • Dao Qu?n Ch?t (Dao S?n ??u, Dao Tam ??o, Dao Nga Hoàng): located in Hoa Binh, Ha Tay, Phu Tho, Vinh Yen, Son La, Yen Bai
  • Dao Thanh Phán (Dao Coóc Mùn, Dao ??i Ván, Dao Lô Gang, Dao D? Kiùn, Dao Thêu): located in Tuyen Quang, Bac Kan, Thai Nguyen, Lang Son, Quang Ninh, Bac Giang
• Ti?u B?n
  • Dao Ti?n (Dao ?eo Ti?n): located in Hoa Binh, Phu Tho, Son La, Tuyen Quang, Cao Bang, Bac Kan
• Kh? B?ch
  • Dao Qu?n Tr?ng: located in Yen Bai, Lao Cai, Tuyen Quang, Ha Giang (known as Dao H? in Yen Bai, Lao Cai)
• Làn Ti?n
  • Dao Thanh Y: located in Tuyen Quang, Bac Guang, Quang Ninh
  • Dao Áo Dài (Dao Tuy?n, Dao Chàm, Dao Slán Ch?): located in Yen Bai, Lao Cai, Tuyen Quang, Ha Giang, Bac Kan

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Distribution

In China, Yao peoples are distributed primarily in the provinces Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan. Ethnic groups derived from the Yao of China are found in Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand.

Guizhou

The Yao of Guizhou are found in the following locations (Guizhou Province Almanac ??? 2002).o

• Libo County: townships of Yaoshan ??, Yaolu ??, and Yao'ai ??
• Shiqian County (2,522 people): 9 Yao villages including Leijiatun ??? and Wurongguan ??? of Beita Township ???, and Shuiwei Village of Huaqiao Township ??????
• Wangmo County: the 4 villages of Shangyoumai ???, Xiaoyoumai ???, Xinzhai ??, and Jiaxian ?? in Youmai Township ?????
• Majiang County: 23 Yao villages in Longshan Township ???, including Heba ?? (with 6,474 people)
• Liping County
  • Shunhua Township ????? (1,316 people in 1992): Gongcun ??, Gaoka ??, Yibuwan ???, Yishu ??; Gaozizhai of Gaoshu Village ??????
  • Leidong Township ??????? (1,576 people in 1992): Jinchengzhai ??? and Yibizhai ??? of Jincheng Village ???, Sanshanzhai of Xilao Village ??????; Cenpangzhai ???, Nongbozhai ???, Yunnanzhai ???
• Congjiang County: 2 subgroups of Red Yao ?? and Pan Yao ??
  • Red Yao ??
    • Cuili Township ???????: Gaomang ??, Xinzhai ??, Shujiawan ???, Wucai ??, Jiage ??, Baiyanchong ???, Raojia ??
    • Jiabang Township ???: Dazhou ???
  • Pan Yao ??
    • Xishan Township ???: Cengang ??, Gaojiao ??, Qiuka ??
    • Douli Township ???: Dengmian ??, Changka ??, Gaoliu ??, Beitong ??
    • Xiutang Township ?????: Dage ??, Yusha ??, Jiujia ??, Baidao ??, Wubu ??, Xilin ??
    • Zaibian Township ???: Zezhui ??
    • Xiajiang Township ???: Huanglang ??
    • Yongli Township ???: Dashan ??, Laozhai ??, Gangbian ??, Huangnijing ???
    • Donglang Township ???: Baidui ??
• Rongjiang County
  • Tashi Township ??????? (2,979 people): Zedong ???, Zaiyong ???, Dangxiang ???, Tashi ???, Dangdiao ???, Zeba ???, Qiaoyang ???.
  • Pingjiang Township ???: Jijiaoba ???, Balu ??
  • Pingyong Township ???: Sanbuqiao ???, Qiaohai ??
  • Sanjiang Township ???: Wuhong ??
  • Liangwang Township ???: Cen'ao ??
  • Pingyou Township ???: Shuangxikou ???, Bakai ??
• Leishan County
  • Dadi Township ???: Longtanggou ???, Paisong ??, Pingzhai ??, Laozhai ??, Beilue ??, Pangjia ??, Jieli ??, Gaolue ??, Tongwu ??, Yeliao ??, Xiaowu ??, Baimizhai ???, Hebian ??
  • Liuwu Township ???: Liuwu ??
  • Qiaosang Township ???: Xiagaojian ???
  • Gulu Township ???: Nanping ??
• Danzhai County: Pailu ??, Yangwu ??, Jiapei ??
• Jianhe County: Zhandi Village, Taiyong Township ??????
• Sandu County: Wuxia ??, Pu'an ??, Jiaxiong ??, Shangjiang ??, Niuchang ??
• Luodian County: Ankang ?? of Luotuo ??; Naji ??, Nakao ??, Nanao ??, Luoyang ??, Longping ??, Bianyang ?? of Fengting ??
• Ziyun County (297 people): Tangguan Village, Maoping Township ?????
• Guanling County (189 people)

The Yao of Guizhou have various autonyms, such as:

• to?55 mo55 (??), in Yaoshan ??, Libo County. The Buyi people call them ?ou21.
• nu55 hou33 (??), in Yaolu ??, Libo County. The Shui people call them miou35 lo55.
• tu?33 mu?33 (??), in Yao'ai ??, Libo County. The Buyi people call them ?ou21.
• ma?55 (?), in Youmai ??, Wangmo County.
• ?o?21 min21 (??), in Rongjiang, Leishan, Danzhai, Jianhe, Congjiang, and Sandu Counties.

Hunan

Some subgroups of ethnic Yao in Hunan include:

• Pan Yao ?? (Mian ?): in Jianghua, Chenxian, Lanshan, Ningyuan, Daoxian, Guiyang, Lingling, Chengbu, Chenxi, Xinning; speak a Mienic language.
• Guoshan Yao ???: in Jianghua, Lanshan, Ningyuan; speak a Mienic language.
• Huajiao Yao ??? (Wunai ??): in Longhui, Tongdao, Xupu, Chenxi; speak a Hmongic language.
• Badong Yao ??? (Batong Yao ???): in Xinning. The Badong Yao speak an endangered Sinitic language. It is spoken in the villages of Huangyandong ???, Malindong ???, and Dazhendong ??? in Huangjin Ethnic Yao Township ?????, Xinning County.
• Pingdi Yao ??? (Bingduoyou ???): in Jianghua, Jiangyong, and speak a Chinese dialect.
• Qixing Yao ???: in Chenxi, and speak a Chinese dialect.

The Hunan Province Gazetteer (1997) gives the following autonyms for various peoples classified by the Chinese government as Yao.

• ju21 mien21 ??: in much of Xiangxi Prefecture
• tom21 pen21 ju21 ???: in Xintian County, Yizhang County, Changning County
• ku21 go?55 ju21 ???: in Lanshan County, Jianghua County
• thou21 ju21 ??
• dzau21 min21 ??: in Shuangpai County, Dao County, Ningyuan County
• Donglixiao ???: in Xinning County; also called Bunu ??, Donglixiao ???, or Dong Yao ?? (Xinning County Gazetteer 2009). Their language is called Donghua ??.
• mm21 nai33 ??: in Longhui County, Xupu County
• pi?21 toa52 jeu21 ??? (also called Dainaijiang ???): in Jianghua County, Jiangyong County

Tan Xiaoping (2012) also gives the following autonyms for Yao subgroups of Jiangyong County.

• mj??31 ?
• j?u31 mj?n31 ??
• i31 mj??31 ??
• iou342 ?ie342 ??
• piu42 tau42 iou42 ???

The Yao of Shaoyang Prefecture are found in the following locations (Shaoyang Prefecture Gazetteer 1997). Population statistics are from 1990.

• Xinning County (12,756 Yao persons): Malin ???, Huangjin ???, Jingwei ??? (in Yuanshui ?????)
• Dongkou County (8,473 Yao persons): Naxi ??? (???), Changtang ???, Dawu ???; Yuexi ??, Zhaping ??, Tongshan ??
• Longhui County (6,151 Yao persons): Huxingshan ????, Mao'ao ???, Xiaoshajiang ????, Qingshan ??, Matangshan ???
• Chengbu County (2,276 Yao persons): Lanrong ??, Qingyuan ??, Dayang ??, Tingping ??, Pengdong ??, Yangmei ??
• Suining County (1,641 Yao persons): Jinta ??, Shuikou ??

The Shaoyang Prefecture Gazetteer (1997) reports that the Yao of Shaoyang Prefecture, Hunan speak the following languages.

• Mienic languages
  • Longhui County ??: Huxingshan ???, Mao'ao ??, Xiaoshajiang ???
  • Dongkou County ??: Dawu ??, Changtang ??
  • Chengbu County ??: Qingyuan ??, Lanrong ??
• Hmongic languages?: Huangjin ?? and Malin ?? of Xinning County
• Southern Dong dialect: Naxi ?? (??), Dongkou County and Lianmin ??, Suining County

The following population statistics of ethnic Yao in Hunan are from the 1990 Chinese census, as given in the Hunan Province Gazetteer (1997).

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Distribution

By province

By county

County-level distribution of the Yao 2000 census

(Only includes counties or county-equivalents containing >1% of county population.)

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Written languages

After the Eleventh Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (in session from 1977 to 1982), the Guangxi Nationality Institute and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences together created a new Yao writing system which was unified with the research results of the Yao-American scholar Yu?sè Hòu (Traditional Chinese: ??·?/Simplified Chinese: ??·?). The writing system was finalized at a one-day conference in 1984 in Ruyan County, Guangdong, which included Chinese professors Pan Chengqian (???/???), Deng Fanggui (???/???), Liu Baoyuan (???/???), Su Defu (???/???) and Yauz Mengh Borngh; Chinese government officials; Mien Americans Sengfo Chao (Zhao Fuming), Kao Chiem Chao (Zhao Youcai), and Chua Meng Chao; David T. Lee.

American linguist Herbert C. Purnell developed a curriculum and workshop presentations on language learning in East and Southeast Asia, as well as Yao Seng Deng from Thailand. The US delegation took the new writing system to the Iu Mien community in the United States where it was adopted with a vote of 78 to 7 by a conference of Mien American community leaders.[6] This writing system based on the Latin alphabet was designed to be pan-dialectal; it distinguishes 30 syllable initials, 121 syllable finals and eight tones.

For an example of how the unified alphabet is used to write Iu Mien, a common Yao language, see Iu Mien language.

There is a separate written standard for Bunu, since it is from the Hmong/Miao side, rather than the Mien/Yao side, of the Miao-Yao language family.

Some people think that a variety of Yao is, or was, written in Nüshu, an indigenous script in Southern part of Hunan Province in China. But this connection between Yao language and Nüshu is disputed, because Nüshu more likely recorded local Chinese dialect which might be also known by Yao people in Hunan.

Officially illiteracy and semi-literacy among the Yao in China still stood at 40.6% in 2002.

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See also

• Dance of the Yao people
• Panhu

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References and sources

•  This article incorporates text from The Chinese times, Volume 4, a publication from 1890 now in the public domain in the United States.

• AsiaHarvest.org: Ethnic group profiles of China
• Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, 'Chiang Mai's Hill Peoples' in: Ancient Chiang Mai Volume 3. Chiang Mai, Cognoscenti Books, 2012. ASIN: B006IN1RNW
• Máo Z?ngw? ???: Yáozú Mi?ny? f?ngyán yánji? ???????? (Studies in Mien dialects of the Miao nationality; B?ij?ng ??, Mínzú ch?b?nshè ????? 2004), ISBN 7-105-06669-5.
• Méng Cháojí ???: Hàn-Yáo cídi?n - Bùn?y? ????----??? (Chinese-Yao Dictionary - Bunu; Chéngd? ??, Sìchu?n mínzú ch?b?nshè ??????? 1996), ISBN 7-5409-1745-8.
• Barker, Judith C., and Saechao, Kaochoy. "A Household Survey of Older Iu-Mien Refugees in Rural California." Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology 12.2 (1997): 121-143.
• Barker, Judith C. & Saechao, Kaochoy. (2000). A demographic survey of Iu-Mien in West Coast States of the U.S., 1993. Journal of Immigrant Health, 2:1, 31-42.
• Phan Ng?c Khuê. 2003. L? c?p s?c c?a ng??i Dao Lô Gang ? L?ng S?n. Hà N?i: Nhà xu?t b?n v?n hóa thông tin.

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Films

• 2003 - Death of a Shaman. Directed by Richard Hall; produced by Fahm Fong Saeyang.
• 1989 - "Moving Mountains: The Story of the Yiu Mien". Directed and produced by Elaine Velazquez

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External links

• The Virtual Hilltribe Museum
• The Yao ethnic minority (on a Chinese government website)
• Yao religious culture - bibliography by Barend ter Haar
• Yao People On-line - in Chinese
• Ethnic Yao subgroups (Chinese)
• The Mien
• The Yao of Thailand
• LearnMien.com

Source of article : Wikipedia